Selasa, 23 Oktober 2012

Good Corporate Governance (GCG) , Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) , International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)

 Good Corporate Governance (GCG)
1. Good Corporate Governance atau sering disingkat GCG adalah suatu praktik pengelolaan perusahaan secara amanah dan prudensial dengan mempertimbangkan keseimbangan pemenuhan kepentingan seluruh stakeholders. Dengan implementasi GCG / penerapan GCG, maka pengelolaan sumberdaya perusahaan diharapkan menjadi efisien, efektif, ekonomis dan produktif dengan selalu berorientasi pada tujuan perusahaan dan memperhatikan stakeholders approach.

IMPLEMENTASI GOOD CORPORATE GOVERNANCE TERGANTUNG PADA BUDAYA INTEGRITAS PERUSAHAAN
Saat perusahaan-perusahaan di Indonesia mengalami krisis ekonomi pada tahun 1997 – 1998,  IMF ( International Monetary Fund) mendorong pemerintah Indonesia untuk menjalankan kebijakan tata kelola perusahaan yang baik (good corporate governance). Sejak itu, dimulai dengan peraturan Bursa Efek Jakarta yang mensyaratkan setiap emiten untuk mengangkat komisaris independen dan membentuk komite audit. Dan juga Bank Indonesia yang mulai mendorong pelaksanaan good governance di sektor perbankan di Indonesia.
Tahun 2000, pemerintah Indonesia melalui  Surat Keputusan Menko Ekonomi, Keuangan Dan Industri Nomor: Kep-31/M.EKUIN/06/2000 membentuk KNKCG atau dikenal dengan  Komite Nasional Kebijakan Corporate Governance. Selanjutnya, KNKCG ini pada tahun 2004 dirubah namanya melalui Surat Keputusan Menko Perekonomian RI No. Kep-49/M.Ekon/II/Tahun 2004 menjadi KNKG atau Komite Nasional Kebijakan Governance. Tahun 2006 KNKG menyempurnakan pedoman corporate governance dari yang sebelumnya. Saat ini semua perusahaan publik wajib mematuhi pedoman tata kelola perusahaan (code of corporate governance) dari KNKG. Untuk perusahaan non publik penerapan code of corporate governance tidak diwajibkan oleh UUPT, tapi bila dijalankan berpotensi meningkatkan reputasi dan kredibilitas bisnis perusahaan di mata stakeholder secara keseluruhan.
Code of corporate governance dari KNKG merupakan dasar buat perusahaan-perusahaan di Indonesia, untuk mengembangkan usahanya secara profesional dan berkompetisi secara terbuka dan sehat dengan budaya GCG. Budaya GCG hanya dapat dijalankan bila setiap kepentingan di dalam perusahaan sudah ikhlas untuk bekerja dan berkehidupan dalam budaya integritas di semua level, peran dan fungsi organisasi.
Implementasi code of corporate governance berpotensi membuat perusahaan dipercaya oleh para stakeholder. Bila para stakeholder sudah mempercayai perusahaan dengan sepenuh hati, maka dengan modal kepercayaan dari stakeholder tersebut, perusahaan memiliki daya saing yang tinggi, untuk dapat berkompetisi dalam setiap situasi di lingkungan bisnis yang dinamis.
Perusahaan yang berbudaya integritas pasti patuh untuk menjalankan  kaidah-kaidah tata kelola perusahaan yang baik. Lalu, menjalankan core values atau nilai inti perusahaan di seluruh level dan jajaran organisasi dengan sempurna. Perusahaan yang berbudaya integritas pasti melengkapi tata kelola perusahaan dengan pedoman tata kelola perusahaan (code of corporate governance), pedoman perilaku (code of conduct), standar prosedur operasional perusahaan, pedoman penanganan benturan kepentingan (conflict of interest), panduan etika bisnis, dan pedoman-pedoman lainnya untuk tujuan menjaga budaya integritas dalam implementasi Good Corporate Governance yang tegas dan jelas.
Implementasi GCG sangat tergantung dari kemampuan perusahaan untuk menginternalisasikan prinsip-prinsip, seperti: transparansi, akuntabilitas, responsibilitas, independensi, kewajaran dan kesetaraan, ke dalam kompetensi produktif dan kompetensi adaptif karyawan dan pimpinan di perusahaan. Fakta selalu menunjukkan bahwa implementasi GCG masih dalam taraf kompetensi normatif. Artinya, secara normatif setiap pimpinan dan karyawan di perusahaan sangat menguasai Good Corporate Governance, tapi belum mampu menjadikannya sebagai kekuatan untuk meningkatkan produktifitas dan adaptasi terhadap perubahan di lingkungan bisnis yang sangat kompetitif ini.
Implementasi GCG tidak hanya merupakan kesadaran kolektif untuk menciptakan tata kelola formalitas oleh dorongan dari kewajiban. Tapi, seharusnya menjadi kesadaran dalam budaya integritas di semua level dan jajaran organisasi. Lalu, secara berkelanjutan dan konsisten melaksanakan GCG dengan komitmen dari visi, misi dan core values yang sesuai dengan semangat budaya GCG.

Sumber : www.google.com

 
2. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
Pengertian Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
Menurut Kotler dan Nancy (2005) Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) didefinisikan sebagai komitmen perusahaan untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan komunitas melalui praktik bisnis yang baik dan mengkontribusikan sebagian sumber daya perusahaan
Menurut CSR Forum (Wibisono, 2007) Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) didefinisikan sebagai bisnis yang dilakukan secara transparan dan terbuka serta berdasarkan pada nilai-nilai moral dan menjunjung tinggi rasa hormat kepada karyawan, komunitas dan lingkungan.
Corporate Social Responsibilit(CSR)adalah suatu tindakan atau konsep yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan (sesuai kemampuan perusahaan tersebut) sebagai bentuk tanggungjawab mereka terhadap sosial/lingkungan sekitar dimana perusahaan itu berada. COntoh bentuk tanggungjawab itu bermacam-macam, mulai dari melakukan kegiatan yang dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat dan perbaikan lingkungan, pemberian beasiswa untuk anak tidak mampu, pemberian dana untuk pemeliharaan fasilitas umum, sumbangan untuk desa/fasilitas masyarakat yang bersifat sosial dan berguna untuk masyarakat banyak, khususnya masyarakat yang berada di sekitar perusahaan tersebut berada. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) merupakan fenomena strategi perusahaan yang mengakomodasi kebutuhan dan kepentingan stakeholder-nya. CSR timbul sejak era dimana kesadaran akan sustainability perusahaan jangka panjang adalah lebih penting daripada sekedar profitability.
Membangun CSR Berbasis Masyarakat
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) merupakan program yang dilakukan oleh sebuah perusahaan sebagai wujud tanggungjawab dan kepedulian sosial. Namun demikian, perlu disadari bahwa CSR bukan semata program sosial yang menjadikan perusahaan sebagai sebuah “lembaga amal” ataupun “bagian dari departemen sosial milik pemerintah”.

Mau tidak mau haruslah diakui bahwa CSR memiliki dua sisi mata uang. Di satu sisi sebagai program kepedulian sosial, sementara di sisi lain merupakan bagian dari perusahaan yang bertujuan mencari keuntungan.

Tantangan yang harus dijawab terkait hal tersebut adalah bagaimana membangun konsep CSR yang benar-benar efektif dalam menjalankan fungsi sosial, namun tidak melupakan tujuan perusahaan untuk mencari keuntungan. Selain itu, bagaimana membangun konsep CSR yang memiliki dampak positif terhadap peningkatan keuntungan perusahaan, namun bukan berarti semata mencari keuntungan melalui “kemasan” tanggungjawab dan kepedulian sosial.

Perlu diketahui, tidak semua perusahaan memiliki program CSR. Bahkan tidak semua perusahaan memiliki divisi Public Relation (PR) atau divisi lain yang biasanya diberikan tugas khusus untuk mengurusi permasalahan CSR. Kalaupun ada perusahaan yang mengagendakan CSR, itu hanya dirangkap oleh divisi lain yang memiliki kedekatan fungsi dalam mencapai tujuan perusahaan untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan meningkatkan keuntungan perusahaan, misalnya divisi pemasaran (marketing).

Alasan bagi perusahaan yang mengambil langkah ini, selain untuk efektifitas anggaran, perusahaan yang seperti ini biasanya memiliki orientasi yang terfokus kepada penjualan dan memperoleh keuntungan semata. Selain itu, ada juga diantara perusahaan tersebut yang hanya membuat program CSR sebagai langkah taktis untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan meningkatkan keuntungan perusahaan.

Bagi perusahaan seperti ini, PR atau CSR dianggap sebagai divisi dan program yang sekadar “menghabiskan uang perusahaan” saja. Selain lemah secara tanggungjawab dan kepedulian sosial, mereka belum menyadari arti penting program jangka panjang untuk keberlangsungan dan peningkatan keuntungan perusahaan di masa yang akan datang. Dengan kata lain, mereka belum menyadari CSR sebagai sebuah program investasi jangka panjang perusahaan.

Sementara itu terkait strategi sebuah perusahaan yang melakukan program CSR semata untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan meningkatkan keuntungan, langkah seperti ini memang ada benarnya juga. Tidak sedikit program-program CSR yang dilakukan perusahaan memiliki dampak secara langsung karena memang sengaja diarahkan untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan peningkatan keuntungan perusahaan.

Program CSR  “dadakan” ini biasanya dilakukan dengan disertai publikasi yang diarahkan kepada menarik simpati publik sehingga terdorong untuk membeli produk. Selain itu, ada juga perusahaan yang menerapkan strategi keikutsertaan publik dalam program CSR dengan membeli produk tertentu.

Namun demikian, langkah “instan” mengagendakan program CSR untuk meraup keuntungan seperti ini tidak akan memberikan dampak positif yang bertahan lama. Selain anggaran yang akan terus membengkak, pogram CSR yang memang tidak direncanakan untuk jangka panjang akan menjadikan menurunnya kualitas kinerja divisi yang dibebani pekerjaan yang bukan merupakan tugas utamanya.

Persoalan lain yang akan muncul ketika perusahaan yang menjadi kompetitor menggunakan strategi tandingan yang hampir sama, sama, bahkan dengan teknik yang lebih mutakhir. Penghancuran karakater perusahaan di mata masyarakat dan para konsumen tentunya akan sangat berpengaruh kepada penjualan dan penghasilan perusahaan.

Hal yang juga perlu diingat yaitu kondisi masyarakat dan konsumen saat ini yang sudah cerdas. Mereka dapat membedakan mana perusahaan yang benar-benar melakukan program CSR dan mana perusahaan yang melakukan program CSR hanya untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan meningkatkan keuntungan perusahaan semata.

Tingkat kecerdasan masyarakat dan konsumen ini akan menentukan pilihan mereka untuk membeli sebuah produk yang dipasarkan oleh perusahaan. Selain itu, bagian ini juga yang biasanya dijadikan landasan strategi bagi pihak perusahaan kompetitor untuk menjatuhkan perusahaan saingannya.

Untuk membangun program CSR yang benar-benar berguna bagi masyarakat dan memiliki dampak positif terhadap penjualan dan peningkatan keuntungan perusahaan, dibutuhkan pemberian program yang memiliki manfaat jangka panjang yang sekaligus dikelola dengan melibatkan masyarakat dan stake holder terkait lain secara berkesinambungan.

Program CSR bermanfaat jangka panjang yang dimaksud yaitu program-program yang memiliki dampak positif untuk kemajuan masyarakat dan relasi antara masyarakat dengan perusahaan dalam jangka waktu yang panjang, bahkan kalau memungkinkan dapat menciptaan sebuah hubungan psikologis seumur hidup.

Program ini dikelola dengan mengikutsertakan masyarakat dan mengedepankan kemandirian masyarakat untuk mengurusi keberlanjutan program tersebut. Peran yang diambil perusahaan, dalam hal ini divisi yang membidangi program CSR, sebaiknya berlaku sebagai “pendamping” masyarakat, yang menjembatani komunikasi antara perusahaan dengan masyarakat dan sebaliknya.

Namun demikian, yang perlu diperhatikan dalam proses pengelolaan program CSR yang berbasis masyarakat ini adalah jangan sampai mencampuradukkan antara program CSR dengan program lain dari perusahaan untuk mendongkrak penjualan dan meningkatkan keuntungan. “Internalisasi” produk perusahaan terhadap masyarakat atau komunitas yang menjadi target program CSR sebaiknya dibiarkan berlangsung secara alami.

Dengan kata lain, akan lebih bijak dan akan sangat menguntungkan bagi perusahaan ketika masyarakat atau komunitas yag menjadi target program CSR nantinya akan menjadi PR bagi produk-produk maupun kebijakan yang dikeluarkan oleh perusahaan. Dengan demikian, perusahaan akan sangat diuntungkan dengan memiliki “tenaga” dan “sumber daya” yang tumbuh dan berkembang dari masyarakat yang nota bene merupakan bagian dari target pemasaran  produk-produk perusahaan.

Ujang Ruhliana adalah Alumni Beswan Djarum, Wakil Ketua Beswan Djarum Universitas Lampung periode 2002 – 2003, Ketua Beswan Djarum Universitas Lampung periode 2003 – 2004.

Sumber : www.google.com
 
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
  
3. IFRS Sebagi Standar Tunggal Pelaporan Keuangan
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) adalah standar, interpretasi, dan kerangka yang diadopsi oleh badan penyusun standar akuntansi internasional yang dikenal dengan International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).
Beberapa standar yang membentuk IFRS dulunya dikenal dengan nama International Accounting Standards (IAS). IAS diterbitkan oleh suatu badan yang dikenal dengan International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) pada kurun waktu antara tahun 1973-2001. Hingga Maret 2002, IASC telah menerbitkan 41 IAS dan 34 SIC (Standing Interpretations Committee) Interpretations. Beberapa di antaranya telah diubah atau diganti oleh IASB. Standar yang masih tersisa dipandang sebagai payung bagi IFRS.
Sepanjang tahun 1999-2000, IASC melakukan restrukturisasi (dengan mengubah konstitusi, strategi, struktur dan nama). IASC berkeinginan untuk menjadi badan akuntansi yang lebih independen dan profesional. Pada Maret 2001, IASC Trustees mengaktifkan Part B dari IASC Constitution yang baru dan menetapkan non-profit Delaware corporation yang diberi nama International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation untuk mengawasi IASB. Pada April 2001, IASB yang baru mengambil alih tanggung jawab IASC dalam menetapkan International Accounting Standards.
IASB berkeinginan untuk membentuk satu standar pelaporan keuangan global yang berkualitas. Selama pertemuan pertamanya, badan yang baru tersebut mengadopsi IAS dan SIC (Standing Interpretation Committee) yang ada. IASB terus mengembangkan standar yang disebut dengan International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Jadi IFRS adalah termasuk standar dan interpretasi yang disetujui oleh IASB serta IAS dan SIC Interpretations yang diterbitkan berdasarkan konstitusi sebelumnya.
Prinsip-prinsip yang mendasari IFRS dijelaskan dalam Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements (Kerangka Dasar Penyusunan dan Penyajian Laporan Keuangan)
IFRS merupakan kesepakatan global standar akuntansi yang didukung lebih dari 100 negara dan badan-badan internasional di dunia. Globalisasi aktivitas ekonomi mengharuskan informasi keuangan berkualitas tinggi dan dapat diperbandingkan secara internasional.
Efektif sejak 1 Januari 2005, perusahaan-perusahaan yang terdaftar di 15 negara Uni Eropa diharuskan untuk menyajikan laporan keuangan konsolidasi sesuai dengan IAS (sejak tahun 2003, standar-standar yang baru disebut sebagai IFRS). Hal ini merupakan perubahan terbesar di Eropa dalam beberapa dekade terakhir ini yang mempengaruhi lebih dari 7.000 perusahaan di Uni Eropa yang akan menyusun laporan keuangan konsolidasi sesuai dengan IAS. Dibandingkan pada tahun 2001, hanya 275 perusahaan di Uni Eropa yang menggunakan IAS dalam penyusunan laporan keuangannya dan 300 perusahaan menggunakan US GAAP.
Sejak tahun 1994, profesi akuntansi di Indonesia, melalui Ikatan Akuntan Indonesia (IAI), telah berkomitmen untuk melakukan harmonisasi terhadap IFRS. Sejak itu, sebagian besar PSAK yang diterbitkan didasarkan pada IFRS. Jadi, pada dasarnya IFRS telah mempengaruhi dunia usaha di Indonesia sejak 1994.
Pada akhir tahun 2008, IAI telah mencanangkan konvergensi PSAK ke IFRS secara penuh pada tahun 2012. Selain itu, pada tahun 2009, negara-negara anggota G-20 telah membuat kesepakatan di Pittsburg, Amerika Serikat yang di antaranya menyatakan bahwa untuk mengurangi kesenjangan peraturan di antara negara-negara anggota G-20, maka otoritas yang mengawasi peraturan akuntansi internasional harus meningkatkan standar global pada Juni 2011. Indonesia, sebagai salah satu negara anggota G-20 tunduk pada kesepakatan global untuk melakukan konvergensi IFRS.
Oleh karena itu, mulai tahun 2009, DSAK-IAI mencanangkan proses konvergensi sampai tahun 2011 dengan target pada tahun 2012, seluruh PSAK tidak memiliki beda material dengan IFRS yang berlaku per 1 Januari 2009. Dan setelah tahun 2012, DSAK-IAI akan terus memperbaharui PSAK jika ada perubahan pada IFRS yang terkait.
Principles Based
IFRS merupakan seperangkat standar yang “berdasarkan prinsip” (principles based) yang menetapkan aturan umum dan menentukan peraturan khusus. Sedangkan US GAAP merupakan standar yang “berdasarkan aturan” (rule based atau regulation based). IFRS menitikberatkan pada prinsip yang dijelaskan dalam kerangka konseptual IASB, bukan pada aturan yang terinci. Berbeda dengan US GAAP, yang pada umumnya memuat persyaratan-persyaratan lebih khusus dan pedoman impelementasi yang rinci.
Pendekatan IASB yang memfokuskan pada prinsip tersebut mengharuskan perusahaan dan auditor untuk menggunakan pertimbangan profesionalnya untuk kepentingan publik. Perusahaan harus menyajikan laporan keuangan yang menyajikan dengan sebenarnya (faithful representation) seluruh transaksi yang terjadi. Auditor juga harus resisten terhadap tekanan klien.
Pelaporan keuangan yang didasarkan pada US GAAP, sebagian besar juga didasarkan pada prinsip, namun disertai dengan aturan dan regulasi yang rinci. Oleh karena itu, US GAAP disebut sebagai standar yang “berdasarkan aturan” (rule based). US GAAP menetapkan persyaratan-persyaratan yang lebih khusus dan memberikan pedoman implementasi yang lebih rinci. Pedoman rinci ini menguntungkan perusahaan, auditor, dan regulator pasar modal. Bagi perusahaan, pedoman rinci akan mengurangi ketidakpastian dalam memperlakukan suatu transaksi. Bagi auditor, persyaratan-persyaratan khusus akan membatasi perselisihan dengan klien dan merupakan pembelaan jika terjadi proses pengadilan. Regulator menggunakan pedoman rinci sebagai alat untuk menegakkan peraturan.
Karena fokus pada prinsip ini, maka pihak-pihak yang meyakini keunggulan US GAAP berpendapat bahwa penerapan IFRS memerlukan terlalu banyak interpretasi. Sebaliknya, pendukung IFRS berpendapat bahwa banyaknya pedoman yang dikeluarkan FASB juga tidak mampu mencegah Enron dalam menghindari aturan akuntansi. Enron adalah perusahaan yang mendirikan entitas bertujuan khusus (special purpose entity) yang tidak dikonsolidasikan dalam laporan keuangan (Enron menggunakan US GAAP). Kegagalan untuk mengkonsolidasikan entitas tersebut diyakini sebagai isu terpenting dalam penyajian kembali laporan keuangan Enron.
Standar akuntansi yang berkualitas sangat diperlukan untuk membantu pelaku ekonomi dalam mengalokasikan sumber dayanya. Alokasi sumber daya sangat tergantung pada informasi keuangan yang mempunyai kredibilitas tinggi dan dapat dipahami. Standar akuntansi harus mampu menyakinkan investor bahwa laporan keuangan yang diterbitkan perusahaan menunjukkan gambaran kinerja dan posisi perusahaan yang sebenarnya. Skandal Enron mengindikasikan perlunya reformasi sistem pelaporan keuangan secara global.
Adopsi IAS atau IFRS tersebut tentunya akan berdampak pada pelaporan keuangan khususnya berkaitan dengan pengakuan dan pengukuran, serta berkaitan dengan konsolidasi dan pelaporan. Salah satu perubahan pengakuan dan pengukuran yang utama adalah semakin luasnya penggunaan prinsip nilai wajar (fair value) dibandingkan dengan biaya historis. Nilai wajar adalah harga yang akan diterima atas penjualan suatu aset atau harga yang akan dibayar atas pengalihan liabilitas (kewajiban) dalam suatu transaksi antar partisipan pasar pada saat tanggal pengukuran. Jadi, konsep nilai wajar menitikberatkan pada arus kas kini dan arus kas yang diekspektasikan. Konsep nilai wajar tidak menekankan pada harga beli historis. Misalnya, amortisasi goodwill dievaluasi setiap periode berdasarkan arus kas yang didiskontokan (discounted cash flows).
Adopsi IFRS akan berdampak pada perubahan pelaporan keuangan. Perusahaan-perusahaan di Indonesia akan mengubah format laporan keuangannya, dan investor akan melihat perubahan tersebut. Demikian juga dengan merger dan akuisisi, kebijakan pajak, dan perencanaan keuangan juga akan terpengaruh.
Dengan tambahan margin penjualan listrik subsidi dari lima persen menjadi delapan persen, laba bersih PT PLN tahun 2010 bisa melesat jauh melampaui tahun 2009. Namun meningkatnya beban bunga, berkurangnya untung dari selisih kurs, serta beban lain-lain menyebabkan laba bersih PLN tergerus hingga 2,5%. Jika tahun 2009 laba bersih yang dibukukan sebesar Rp 10,355 triliun, laba tahun 2010 mentok di angka 10,086 triliun.
Toh situasi tersebut, ditambah iklim kerja yang berkembang makin baik, telah memacu seluruh jajaran PLN untuk bekerja makin keras dan profesional. Maka wajar saja jika kemudian Dahlan Iskan memanfaatkan momentum itu untuk mengubah tagline PT PLN. Semula tagline yang sudah dipakai bertahun-tahun adalah Electricity for a Better life, Listrik untuk Kehidupan yang Lebih Baik. Dahlan menggantinya dengan semboyan baru Bekerja Bekerja Bekerja!
Slogan yang digagas Dahlan tersebut mampu meneguhkan fokus pada orientasi perusahaan, bahwa tugas utama sebagai korporasi adalah bekerja untuk melayani.
Di tengah semangat tinggi seluruh jajaran PLN untuk unjuk kerja itulah Dahlan Iskan harus pergi. Maka ketika para calon menteri menebar senyum setelah dipanggil Presiden, Pak Dis ?begitu ia suka dipanggil, akronim dari Dahlan Iskan- justru menangis. “Saya menangis karena harus meninggalkan teman-teman di PLN yang sedang semangat-semangatnya bekerja,” ucapnya.
Harapan Presiden, juga publik dan stakeholders BUMN, agar semangat serupa bisa ditularkan kepada BUMN yang lain. Dahlan tidak mengusung slogan dan konsep besar yang hanya menarik di meja diskusi. Dia mengajak semua orang untuk menyederhanakan persoalan dan bekerja untuk mengatasinya
DAMPAK IMPLEMENTASI IFRS BAGI PERUSAHAAN
Perusahaan menyusun laporan keuangan berdasarkan standar akuntansi agar dapat menghasilkan laporan keuangan yang relevan dan andal. Standar akuntansi menetapkan aturan pengakuan, pengukuran, penyajian dan pengungkapan dalam laporan keuangan sehingga memungkinkan pembaca untuk dapat membandingkan laporan keuangan antar perusahaan yang berbeda. Standar tidak hanya harus dipahami pihak yang menyusun dan mengaudit laporan keuangan, namun juga harus dipahami oleh pembaca laporan keuangan. Pembaca perlu memahami asumsi dasar, karakteristik laporan keuangan agar dapat memahami makna angka-angka dan pengungkapan dalam laporan keuangan.
Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (PSAK) merupakan standar yang digunakan untuk menyusun laporan keuangan perusahaan yang memiliki akuntabilitas publik signifikan. BUMN termasuk perusahaan yang memiliki akuntabilitas publik signifikan karena laporannya diberikan kepada masyarakat. Untuk BUMN yang memiliki transaksi syariah juga harus menggunakan PSAK Syariah untuk melaporkan transaksi tersebut.
PSAK saat ini sedang dalam proses mengadopsi penuh IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standard) dengan target 2012 proses adopsi akan selesai.  Sebenarnya PSAK sejak 1994 disusun dengan menggunakan referensi utama International Accounting Standard. Namun dalam PSAK tidak menyebutkan secara eksplisit jika standar tersebut mengadopsi PSAK.  Dalam perkembangannya setelah 1994, PSAK juga menggunakan referensi lain.  Ada beberapa PSAK khusus industri disusun untuk digunakan dalam menyusun laporan keuangan perusahaan dalam industri tersebut padahal dalam IAS/IFRS, standar tersebut tidak ada.


sumber : www.google.com

Selasa, 09 Oktober 2012

Etika


Sebagai makhluk sosial kita tidak bisa lepas tanpa kehadiran orang lain setiap tindakan kita sekecil apa pun pasti butuh bantuan orang lain contohnya saat kita tersenyum kita tak bisa tersenyum tanpa bantuan orang lain kita bisa saja tersenym sendiri tapi jangan salahkan orang lain bila di anggap kita gila.Dalam kehidupan bermasarakat kita bergaul dengan berbagai pribadi yang berbeda dari bermacam suku agama dan keyakinan dan semua itu kita butuh etika atau aturan dalam pergaulan sehari.
*Etika Berbicara
1. Hendaknya pembicaran selalu di dalam kebaikan

2. Hendaknya pembicaran dengan suara yang dapat didengar, tidak terlalu keras, dan tidak pula terlalu rendah, ungkapannya jelas dapat difahami oleh semua orang dan tidak dibuat-buat atau dipaksa-paksakan.
3. Jangan membicarakan sesuatu yang tidak berguna bagimu
4. Menghindari perdebatan dan saling membantah, sekalipun kamu berada di fihak yang benar dan menjauhi perkataan dusta sekalipun bercanda.
5. Tenang dalam berbicara dan tidak tergesa-gesa
6. Menghindari sikap memaksakan diri dan banyak bicara di dalam berbicara
*Etika bercanda
1. Hendaknya percandaan tidak mengandung nama Allah
2. Hendaknya percandaan itu adalah benar tidak mengandung dusta
3. Hendaknya percandaan tidak mengandung unsur menyakiti perasaan salah seorang di antara manusia.
4. Bercanda tidak boleh dilakukan terhadap orang yang lebih tua darimu, atau terhadap orang yang tidak bisa bercanda atau tidak dapat menerimanya

*Etika bergaul dengan orang lain
1. Hormati perasaan orang lain, tidak mencoba menghina atau menilai mereka cacat.
2. Jaga dan perhatikanlah kondisi orang, kenalilah karakter dan akhlaq mereka, lalu pergaulilah mereka, masing-masing menurut apa yang sepantasnya.
3. Dengarkanlah pembicaraan mereka dan hindarilah perdebatan dan bantah-membantah dengan mereka.

*Etika bertetangga
1. Menghormati tetangga dan berprilaku baik terhadap mereka
2. Bangunan yang kita bangun jangan mengganggu tetangga kita, tidak membuat mereka tertutup dari sinar matahari atau udara, dan kita tidak boleh melampaui batasnya, apakah merusak atau mengubah miliknya, karena hal tersebut menyakiti perasaannya.
3. Tidak melakukan suatu kegaduhan yang mengganggu mereka, seperti suara radio atau TV, atau mengganggu mereka dengan melempari halaman mereka dengan kotoran, atau menutup jalan bagi merek
4.  Hendaknya kita turut bersuka cita di dalam kebahagiaan mereka dan berduka cita di dalam duka mereka; kita jenguk bila ia sakit, kita tanyakan apabila ia tidak ada, bersikap baik bila menjumpainya; dan hendaknya kita undang untuk datang ke rumah
5. Hendaknya kita sabar atas prilaku kurang baik mereka terhadap kita


*Etika Mahasiswa Dalam Berbusana
1. Busana sangat mencerminkan sikap dan tingkah laku baik buruknya seseorang. Etika dalam berbusana sangat penting dan vital bagi mahasiswa baik di lingkungan kampus maupun luar kampus.

2.  Busana yang dikenakan mahasiswa sebaiknya sewajarnya yang kita pakai . tidak terlalu mencolok bagi wanita .

Senin, 11 Juni 2012

TUGAS ARTICLE_PASSIVE VOICE


Guidelines for Living With Diabetes
Listed below are some diabetes guidelines that you can use to help you manage your diabetes and avoid the possible serious complications that are associated with this disease.
Strategies for Diabetes Management
• When you have diabetes it is essential that you exercise at least three to four times a week for between 20 to 40 minutes each time. Routine exercise has been proven to improve your blood sugars, decrease the risk of heart disease, and help you lose weight. Before starting any exercise program you will want to talk with your physician especially if you are experiencing any neuropathy or vision problems.

• Eating a proper diet is essential. If you are having difficulty regulating your blood sugar levels you may want to visit with a dietitian on a regular basis to ensure that the foods you are eating are beneficial to your body and your glucose levels. You can find dietitians through your physician or hospital and they, along with your diabetes health care team, can assist you in finding a diet that is right for you.

• It is vital that you get plenty of rest. Adhering to a routine schedule and getting enough sleep will help avoid stress and help you keep your blood sugar levels under control.

• It is extremely important that you maintain your feet properly. You need to check your feet daily for any calluses, cracks, or sores. If you notice sores that do not heal in a timely manner, swelling that does not go down after you elevate your feet, redness, ulcers, or pus it is important to visit your physician immediately. Over half of all lower limb amputations are done on people who have diabetes but have neglected proper foot care.

The Importance of Diabetes Medications

• It is important to your health that you take any prescribed medications on time and on the schedule that was prescribed by your physician.( simple past tense)1

• You also need to understand your medications and recognize the side effects and how they work in conjunction with each other as well as how they work with any dietary supplements you may be taking. Prior to beginning any dietary supplement you need to check with your physician to see how it will interact with any medications you are currently taking as well as how it may affect your glucose levels.

Strategies for Controlling Your Blood Sugar Levels

• As you should be aware, maintaining normal blood sugar levels is essential. You always want to try to keep your blood sugar levels in the range is recommended by your health care provider at all times(simple present tense)2. Use your glucose meter as recommended by your doctor yet when you are ill you will want to use it more often. If your numbers stay elevated over an extended period of time or fall below recommended levels you should call your doctor immediately.

• It is important to keep a log of your blood sugar levels, what you eat during the day, as well as any stress that you may be experiencing which may elevate your glucose levels. When you visit your physician you should take this log with you to determine any trends and take appropriate action.

Diabetes does not have to be a death sentence. If you use your own common sense and follow the strategies listed above you can control this disease and live a long and happy life. In some cases people have even managed to turn their condition around simply through diet and exercise.







Healthy foods are actually cheaper than popular manufactured foods

Observe people and learn

When you go into a grocerystore, observe people: watch who buys what, how healthy or diseased they look and what economic status you think they have. You will begin to notice some interesting patterns.
One is that those who seem to be having the most financial trouble are buying the foods with the highest markup. They are unable to make good decisions about what foods offer nutritional value. They buy things like instant macaroni andcheese, dinner mixes, potato chips, and carbonated soft drink beverages. They buy foods that are nutritionally worthless, but cost a lot of money. You can go to any grocery store and observe this yourself.
At the same time, you'll notice that people who tend to be healthy, who seem to be aware of what's going on around them, who look intelligent, whoseeyeslight up, who have someenergyevident in the way they hold their bodies and in the way they interact with others around them -- these people are intelligentshoppers. In their carts, you'll notice they have lots offruits and vegetables, lots of raw foodingredients, and you'll see that they tend to buy things in bulk. They'll buy bulk ingredients like brownrice, beans, or legumes. They actually pay attention to what they're buying by reading the ingredients labels, for example.
Contrast this to the everyday grocery shoppers: these are the everyday people who don’t really pay attention to nutrition. They don't make goodchoices. They basically pull things off the shelves that they've seen on television. They choose foods based on what they've been told to buy through promotional advertisements, public relations, and other efforts, including food lobbying.
Lobbying is howthe USDAcame up with the new "Food Guide Pyramid," by the way. It's pretty much the "Drink More Milk" pyramid. It was heavily influenced by the dairyindustry (simple past tense)3 . Look at how muchmilkit says we should drink now. Apparently, all humans are supposed to eat from cows utters, which is rather interesting, given that there is no nutritional requirement for any human being to eat from any cow.
The everyday shoppers who buy all of this garbage that's been advertised are chronically diseased. You can see it at a remarkably young age. Even when they're teenagers, you can see the disease starting to progress. If these people happen to be in their 30s, 40s, or even their 50s and beyond, you can see the progression of this disease.
I don't want to be judgmental in saying it, but it is sometimes painful to look at these people. Sometimes I just feel so much compassion for them, I want to help them. But in many ways, most of them aren't ready to be helped. It's also a bit frightening, if you think about what's going on in their bodies. All of this degeneration, this lack of flow, and stagnation that's happening in their bodies... the stress on the organs: the pancreas, theliver, the spleen, the kidneys, the heart. You look in their shopping cart and think, "Oh my God! How can these people buy this stuff?"



Healthy eating tip 8: Add calcium for strong bones


Calcium is one of the key nutrients that your body needs in order to stay strong and healthy. It is an essential building block for lifelong bone health in both men and women, as well as many other important functions.
You and your bones will benefit from eating plenty of calcium-rich foods, limiting foods that deplete your body’s calcium stores, and getting your daily dose of magnesium and vitamins D and K—nutrients that help calcium do its job.
Recommended calcium levels are 1000 mg per day, 1200 mg if you are over 50 years old. Take a vitamin D and calcium supplement if you don’t get enough of these nutrients from your diet.
Good sources of calcium include:
§  Dairy: Dairy products are rich in calcium in a form that is easily digested and absorbed by the body (simple present tense)4. Sources include milk, yogurt, and cheese.
§  Vegetables and greens: Many vegetables, especially leafy green ones, are rich sources of calcium. Try turnip greens, mustard greens, collard greens, kale, romaine lettuce, celery, broccoli, fennel, cabbage, summer squash, green beans, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and crimini mushrooms.
§  Beans: For another rich source of calcium, try black beans, pinto beans, kidney beans, white beans, black-eyed peas, or baked beans.


global warming solutions - "Saving the earth: start in your backyard "

Saving earth is everyone's responsibility. The damages done to the earth resources have to be slowed-down and eventually stop if we want our children and grand-children to enjoy a healthy outdoor life like we can.

The big polluters have been pointed and rules and regulations to diminish the toxic gas emissions have been put into place. Manufacturers are now targeted to ensure they lower their pollution production.

Although this is a small step in the right direction, more needs to be done to slow down and eventually stop the wastes of our natural resources. Such solutions as walking instead of taking the car for small travels are a good and healthy start. Other measures such as not letting the purified water run aimlessly or better isolation of a house to lower the fuel consumption to heat it are all small steps that have the power to make a difference in the long run.

Other measures such as only washing the dishes or the laundry for full loads can on the long run greatly reduce the exploitation of earth's resources.

Saving the earth can also be done in your own backyard. Hence, when mowing the lawn, it has been proven that by leaving the cut grass(present perfect tense)5, you are saving a lot on fertilizers and you have greatly diminishing the quantity of waist you are producing. The other great benefit from not picking-up the cut grass is the time saving you can enjoy. Cut grass when left in place has the power to give back to the earth powerful and natural nutrients and a good load of natural water.

Saving the earth's resources by leaving the cut grass in place will actually give you a greener grass from the nutrients your lawn is getting back. It will also reduce or eliminate your needs for polluting pesticides and fertilizers. 

After 48 hours of being cut, most of the grass will have returned to earth, this time can be faster in case of rainy weather. It has been calculated that when thrown away, grass clipping residues can account for as much as 24% of the yearly domestic trash production.

Other tricks and tips to get a greener more ecological grass include: Use a mulching land mower, have a sharp blade, cut your grass frequently but not too short. Short grass is said to favor the growth of weeds and has the power to attract more insects. 

It is recommended not to mow the lawn during very hot day as the grass might dry and is more vulnerable. It is also not recommended to cut the lawn when wet or on rainy days as the paste produce can suffocate the underlying grass in the next days.

Last but not least is about watering your lawn. Most climates will provide the necessary rain and hydration so lawn watering is not something that should be automatically programmed. It is a tremendous waste of purified water when sprinklers are used during rain, a scene too frequently occurring.

Gnat Infestation

Gnat are tiny flies that infest homes during summer. Gnat infestation is very irritating and it seems like your home and sanity is being taken over by insects(present continuous tense)6, that are multiplying every second. This article will help you get rid of gnats in homes and gardens and win back your property and peace of mind from these tiny insects.
Gnat are commonly known as 'fruit flies' or 'no-see-ums'. These are pestiferous organisms that invade your homes during summer. There are many types of gnats and are basically harmless. The most irritating thing about this pestering creatures is that constant buzzing and hovering over your head that drives you insane. They are also known as vinegar flies, as they are attracted to everything that smells rotten. 

Identifying Gnat Infestation
If your house is teaming with small, black insects that fly and are a bit smaller than mosquitoes, that don't buzz, proves you are having infestation in home. Gnats are the biggest fans of fungus and love moisture, thus, are found hovering over overripe peaches, bananas, tomatoes, potatoes, over-watered potted plants and trash bins. 

If you want to get rid of infestation of gnats in your home, then make sure you keep all your fruits and vegetables in the refrigerator. Do not over-water your indoor plants and drain excess water from the pots and trays, over which the pots are kept. Cover your trash bins with lids and get rid of all the decaying and rotten food over and under the kitchen counter. The other easy way to get rid of them is by arming yourself with insect sprays and fly swatters. If you are carrying out composting in your home, keep the composting bin outside the house. This will keep the gnat outside your doors to some extent.

Fungus Gnat Infestation
Fungus gnat infestation is a very serious insect infestation, that causes a lot of damage to plants. It results in hundreds of eggs begin laid in the soil, that result in larvae eating up the roots. Thus, damaging the plant growth. Fungal gnat love moisture too, and are common invaders of green houses and indoor houseplants. The fungal gnat larvae leaves a trail of slimy goo, that attracts snails and slugs. If you observe a sudden spurt of snail or slug population, it proves you have a fungal gnat infection. 

In order to get rid of the fungal gnat infection, use yellow sticky traps that are placed horizontally on the soil surface. The females are captured in this trap before they are able to lay eggs. You may even try incorporating Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) liquid drench in the soil to kill the larvae. This is very useful as it kills the larvae without damaging the plants. 

You may even try using liquid fly traps, available at many garden supply stores. It consists of a fly attractant powder in a container, to be filled with water, so that the flies are attracted into the container. They fly into the container towards sure death.

These are a few remedies for getting rid of infestation of gnats. The main thing to be remembered is that these gnats love moisture and the smell of rotten organic matter. Thus, keep your surroundings clean by getting rid of dead decaying plant matter, food in kitchen, overripe fruits and vegetables, etc. Your surroundings should be kept dry and do not over water your plants. Follow these preventive measures and free yourself from the nettlesome and pesky infestation.

Mike Vick Being Sued for Breaching Contract with Sports Company
Philadelphia Eagles Quarterback Michael Vick is being sued by J.O. Sports Company (present continuous tense)7 for failing to fulfill obligations as part of three year $101,500 contract. Vick entered into the agreement with the sports firm in August 2011. The deal allegedly stipulated that Vick must provide J.O. Sports with game worn equipment, make public appearances, and attend private signings. The suit filed in Clark County, Nevada states Vick has met none of the requirements. The company additionally claims they set up social media sites on Vick’s behalf. He owes the company $4,000 for these expenses. J.O. Sports Company, which is being represented by Spencer M. Judd, seeks its’ money back, delinquency charges, collection costs, and attorneys’ fees.

Troy Brown voted into Patriots Hall of Fame


The Patriots announced today that receiver/returner Troy Brown has been voted by fans as the 18th player and 19th member enter the Patriots Hall of Fame.(present perfect tense)8
The induction ceremony will be held outside The Hall at Patriot Place on Sat. Sept. 15, the day before the Patriots 2012 regular season home opener against the Arizona Cardinals.
In April, a 17-person nomination committee comprised of media, alumni, and staff selected three candidates for consideration for the Patriots Hall of Fame. The three finalists were Brown, former free safety Fred Marion (1982-91) and former Head Coach Bill Parcells (1993-96).
“Troy Brown will always be special to me, as he was my sweetheart’s favorite player during his career,” said Patriots chairman and CEO Robert Kraft according to a statement released by the team. “Clearly, a lot of Patriots fans shared her sentiment and I am proud that we will honor Troy with his induction into the Patriots Hall of Fame this fall.
“To me, Troy was the consummate Patriot who always put team goals ahead of personal ones. His height and speed made him a proverbial underdog in a league that always featured taller and faster players. But, his heart and perseverance made him a champion and a fan favorite. The Patriots record books will always show that Troy was one of the greatest receivers and punt returners in franchise history, but Patriots fans know that he was so much more than that. His selfless contributions to the success of the team on offense, defense and special teams made him unique as a player and helped deliver three Super Bowl titles. For 15 years, Troy personified what it meant to be a Patriot, both on and off the field. With his induction into the Patriots Hall of Fame, his legacy will be preserved for generations to come.”

 

Minggu, 08 April 2012

tugas bahasa inggris (Might, Should , Must , have to , will , would )

What Would the End of Football Look Like?
An economic perspective on CTE and the concussion crisis
By Tyler Cowen and Kevin Grier on February 9, 20011
The NFL is done for the year, but it is not pure fantasy to suggest that it may be done for good in the not-too-distant future. How might such a doomsday scenario play out and what would be the economic and social consequences?
By now we're all familiar with the growing phenomenon of head injuries and cognitive problems among football players, even at the high school level. In 2009, Malcolm Gladwell asked whether football might someday come to an end, a concern seconded recently by Jonah Lehrer.
Before you say that football is far too big to ever disappear, consider the history: If you look at the stocks in the Fortune 500 from 1983, for example, 40 percent of those companies no longer exist. The original version of Napster no longer exists, largely because of lawsuits. No matter how well a business matches economic conditions at one point in time, it's not a lock to be a leader in the future, and that is true for the NFL too. Sports are not immune to these pressures. In the first half of the 20th century, the three big sports were baseball, boxing, and horse racing, and today only one of those is still a marquee attraction.
The most plausible route to the death of football starts with liability suits.1 Precollegiate football is already sustaining 90,000 or more concussions each year. If ex-players start winning judgments, insurance companies might cease to insure colleges and high schools against football-related lawsuits. Coaches, team physicians, and referees would 1 become increasingly nervous about their financial exposure in our litigious society. If you are coaching a high school football team, or refereeing a game as a volunteer, it is sobering to think that you could be hit with a $2 million lawsuit at any point in time. A lot of people will2 see it as easier to just stay away. More and more modern parents will keep their kids out of playing football, and there tends to be a "contagion effect" with such decisions; once some parents have second thoughts, many others follow suit. We have seen such domino effects with the risks of smoking or driving without seatbelts, two unsafe practices that were common in the 1960s but are much rarer today. The end result is that the NFL's feeder system dry up and advertisers and networks would shy away from associating with the league, owing to adverse publicity and some chance of being named as co-defendants in future lawsuits.
It may not matter that the losses from these lawsuits are much smaller than the total revenue from the sport as a whole. As our broader health care sector indicates (try buying private insurance when you have a history of cancer treatment), insurers don't like to go where they know they will take a beating. That means just about everyone could be exposed to fear of legal action.
This slow death march could easily take 10 to 15 years. Imagine the timeline. A couple more college players — or worse, high schoolers — commit suicide with autopsies showing CTE. A jury makes a huge award of $20 million to a family. A class-action suit shapes up with real legs, the NFL keeps changing its rules, but it turns out that less than concussion levels of constant head contact still produce CTE. Technological solutions (new helmets, pads) are tried and they fail to solve the problem. Soon high schools decide it isn't worth it. The Ivy League quits football, then California shuts down its participation, busting up the Pac-12. Then the Big Ten calls it quits, followed by the East Coast schools. Now it's mainly a regional sport in the southeast and Texas/Oklahoma. The socioeconomic picture of a football player becomes more homogeneous: poor, weak home life, poorly educated. Ford and Chevy pull their advertising, as does IBM and eventually the beer companies.
There's a lot less money in the sport, and at first it's "the next hockey" and then it's "the next rugby," and finally the franchises start to shutter.
Along the way, you would have an NFL with much lower talent levels, less training, and probably greater player representation from poorer countries, where the demand for money is higher and the demand for safety is lower. Finally, the NFL is marginalized as less-dangerous sports gobble up its market share. People — American people — might actually start calling "soccer" by the moniker of "football."
Despite its undeniable popularity — and the sense that the game is everywhere — the aggregate economic effect of losing the NFL would not actually be that large. League revenues are around $10 billion per year while U.S. GDP is around $15,300 billion. But that doesn't mean everyone would be fine.
Big stadiums will lose a lot of their value and that will drag down neighboring bars and restaurants, causing a lot of them to shut their doors. Cable TV will be less profitable, and this will hasten the movement of TV-watching, if we can still call it that, to the web. Super Bowl Sunday will no longer be the best time to go shopping for a new car at the dealership.
Take Green Bay as a case study: A 2009 study of the economic impact of the Packers' stadium estimated "$282 million in output, 2,560 jobs and $124.3 million in earnings, and $15.2 million in tax revenues." That's small potatoes for the national economy as a whole, but for a small and somewhat remote city of 104,000, it is a big deal indeed.2
Any location where football is the only game in town will suffer. If the Jets and Giants go, New York still has numerous other pro sports teams, Broadway, high-end shopping, skyscrapers, fine dining, and many other cultural activities. If college football dies, Norman, Oklahoma (current home to one of us), has … noodling? And what about Clemson, in South Carolina, which relies on the periodic weekend football surge into town for its restaurant and retail sales? Imagine a small place of 12,000 people that periodically receives a sudden influx of 100,000 visitors or more, most of them eager to spend money on what is one of their major leisure outings. It's like a port in the Caribbean losing its cruise ship traffic. (Overall, the loss of football could actually increase migration from rural to urban areas over time. Football-dependent areas are especially prominent in rural America, and some of them will lose a lot of money and jobs.)
Outside of sports, American human capital and productivity probably rise. No football Saturdays on college campuses means less binge drinking, more studying, better grades, smarter future adults. Losing thousands of college players and hundreds of pro players might3 produce a few more doctors or engineers. Plus, talented coaches and general managers would gravitate toward management positions in American industry. Heck, just getting rid of fantasy football probably saves American companies hundreds of millions of dollars annually.
Other losers include anything that depends heavily on football to be financially viable, including the highly subsidized non-revenue collegiate sports. No more air travel for the field hockey teams or golf squads. Furthermore, many prominent universities would lose their main claim to fame. Alabama and LSU produce a large amount of revenue and notoriety from football without much in the way of first-rate academics to back it up. Schools would have to4 compete more on academics to be nationally prominent, which would again boost American education.
One of the biggest winners would be basketball. To the extent that fans replace football with another sport (instead of meth or oxy), high-octane basketball is the natural substitute. On the pro level, the season can stretch out leisurely, ticket prices rise, ratings rise, maybe the league expands (more great athletes in the pool now), and some of the centers and power forwards will have more bulk. At the college level, March Madness becomes the only game in town.
Another winner would be track and field. Future Rob Gronkowskis in the decathlon? Future Jerome Simpsons in the high jump? World records would fall at a rapid pace.
This outcome may sound ridiculous, but the collapse of football is more likely than you might think. If recent history has shown anything, it is that observers cannot easily imagine the big changes in advance. Very few people were predicting the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany, or the rise of China as an economic power. Once you start thinking through how the status quo might unravel, a sports universe without the NFL at its center no longer seems absurd.

The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders - balancing economic, legal, and social responsibilities

Orientation Toward Stakeholders
Now that we have a basic understanding of the three ethical types or approaches, we will propose profiles of what the likely stakeholder orientation might be toward the major stakeholder groups using each of the three ethical approaches. Our goal is to accentuate the moral management approach by contrasting it with the other two types.
Basically, there are five major stakeholder groups that are recognized as priorities by most firms, across industry lines and in spite of size or location: owners (shareholders), employees, customers, local communities, and the society-at-large. Although the general ethical obligation to each of these groups is essentially identical (protect their rights, treat them with respect and fairness), specific behaviors and orientations arise because of the differing nature of the groups. In an attempt to flesh out the character and salient features of the three ethical types and their stake holder orientations, Figures 5 and 6 summarize the orientations these three types might assume with respect to four of the major stakeholder groups. Because of space constraints and the general nature of the society-at-large category, it has been omitted.
By carefully considering the described stakeholder orientations under each of the three ethical types, a richer appreciation of the moral management approach should be possible. Our goal here is to gain a fuller understanding of what it means to engage in moral management and what this implies for interacting with stakeholders. To be sure, there are other stakeholder groups to which moral management should be directed, but again, space precludes their discussion here. This might include thinking of managers and non-managers as distinct categories of employees and would also embrace such groups as suppliers, competitors, special interest groups, government, and the media.
Though the concept of corporate social responsibility may from time to time be supplanted by various other focuses such as social responsiveness, social performance, public policy, ethics, or stakeholder management, an underlying challenge for all is to define the kinds of responsibilities management and businesses have to the constituency groups with which they transact and interact most frequently. The pyramid of corporate social responsibility gives us a framework for understanding the evolving nature of the firm's economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic performance. The implementation of these responsibilities may vary depending upon the firm's size, management's philosophy, corporate strategy, industry characteristics, the state of the economy, and other such mitigating conditions, but the four component parts provide management with a skeletal outline of the nature and kinds of their CSR. In frank, action-oriented terms, business is called upon to: be profitable, obey the law, be ethical, and be a good corporate citizen.
The stakeholder management perspective provides not only a language and way to personalize relationships with names and faces, but also some useful conceptual and analytical concepts for diagnosing, analyzing, and prioritizing an organization's relationships and strategies. Effective organizations will progress beyond stakeholder identification and question what opportunities and threats are posed by stakeholders; what economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities they have; and what strategies, actions or decisions should5 be pursued to most effectively address these responsibilities. The stakeholder/responsibility matrix provides a template management might use to organize its analysis and decision making.
Throughout the article we have been building toward the notion of an improved ethical organizational climate as manifested by moral management. Moral management was defined and described through a contrast with immoral and amoral management. Because the business landscape is replete with immoral and amoral managers, moral managers may sometimes be hard to find. Regardless, their characteristics have been identified and, most important, their perspective or orientation towards the major stakeholder groups has been profiled. These stakeholder orientation profiles give managers a conceptual but practical touchstone for sorting out the different categories or types of ethical (or not-so-ethical) behavior that may be found in business and other organizations.
It has often been said that leadership by example is the most effective way to improve business ethics. If that is true, moral management provides a model leadership perspective or orientation that managers may wish to emulate. One great fear is that managers may think they are providing ethical leadership just by rejecting immoral management. However, amoral management, particularly the unintentional variety, may unconsciously prevail if managers are not aware of what it is and of its dangers. At best, amorality represents ethical neutrality, and this notion is not tenable in the society of the 1990s. The standard must 6be set high, and moral management provides the best exemplar of what that lofty standard might embrace. Further,moral management, to be fully appreciated, needs to be seen within the context of organization-stakeholder relationships. It is toward this singular goal that our entire discussion has focused. If the "good society" is to become a realization, such a high expectation only naturally becomes the aspiration and preoccupation of management.
 *http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n4_v34/ai_11000639/pg_6/?tag=content;
Ø  Summary chart of modals and similar expressions
1.      Auxiliary : would
USES : Preference

2.      Auxiliary : Will
USES : 100% certainty

3.      Auxiliary : Might
USES : Less than 50% certainty

4.      Auxiliary : Have to
USES : Neccessity

5.      Auxiliary : Should
USES :  90% certainty

6.      Auxiliary : Must
USES : 95% certainty